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Boserup
NOTE CARDS
CARD 1 - FRONT
Syllabus:
Boserup believed that people have the resources of knowledge and technology to increase food supplies.
Boserup opposes Malthus' theory; she suggested that population growth has enabled agricultural development to occur. Her theory assumes people knew of the techniqes required by more intensive systems and used them when the population grew.
For example demographic pressure (increase in population density) promotes innovation and higher productivity in use of land (eg. irrigation, weeding, crop intensification, better seeds) and labor (tools, better techniques).
CARD 2 - BACK
This graph shows how the rate of food supply may vary but never reaches itscarrying capacitybecause every time it is getting near, there is an invention or development that causes the food supply to increase. These changes often induce agricultural innovation but increase marginal labour cost to the farmer as well: the higher the rural population density, the more hours the farmer must work for the same amount of produce. Therefore workloads tend to rise while efficiency drops. This process is what Boserup describes as "agricultural intensification".
CARD 2 - FRONT
Strengths
Although Boserup is widely regarded as being anti-Malthusian, both her insights and those of Malthus can be comfortably combined within the same general theoretical framework.
Boserup argued that the changes in technology allow for improved crop strains and increased yields; which was supported by evidence of GM crops and the 'Green Revolution'.
Boserup accepts that overpopulation can lead to unsuitable farming practices which may degrade the land eg. population pressure as one of the reasons for desertification in the Sahal region (fragile environments at risk)
CARD 3 - BACK
Weaknesses
The theory has been instrumental in understanding agricultural patterns indeveloping countries,although it ishighly simplified and generalized.
Boserup's theory is based on the assumption of 'closed' society - which is not the case in reality eg. migration
It is less convincing as an explanation of short-term trends, and in this case the "short" term can last for decades.
One may speculate that she was more interested in less developed countries than in advanced countries.
"Boserup seems to neglect the different nature of modern technology or the new role of capital. Her world is a two-factor world -- labor and land. "
"Unfortunately, the places with the food shortages tend to have low-tech agriculture, and the high-tech parts of the world tend to have high living standards and plenty of food."
At some point, the population may get so huge that they can't be fed no matter how inventive they are. Indeed to feed more mouths people have to dig deeper into the environment, to divert more biological productivity for themselves, to demand more from the soil, to use more water, more fertiliser etc.; Can the environment really sustain this kind of pressure in the long run?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
BACKGROUND:
Ester Boserup was not a professional economic historian and this is not properly speaking a work of history. Boserup was part of the staff at the United Nations and she wrote the book out of her experience as a consultant in developing countries. Usually, it is labeled as "anti-Malthusian" and encapsulated with a sentence such as "population growth causes agricultural growth." This is undoubtedly an implication of her model and comes in handy to scholars who do not believe that the (human) carrying capacity of a given area is set, and cannot be exceeded.
THEORIES:
Boserup opposes Malthus' theory that states that the size and growth of a population depends on the food supply and agricultural methods by arguing that agricultural methods are dependent on the size of the population. Although Boserup is widely regarded as being anti-Malthusian, both her insights and those of Malthus can be comfortably combined within the same general theoretical framework.
Boserup also stated that in times of pressure, people will find ways to increase the productivity of food by increasing machinery, the workforce, fertilizers etc.Where Malthus believes that in these times when food supplies are insufficient, the extra people will just die.
This graph shows how the rate of food supply may vary but never reaches its carrying capacity because every time it is getting near, there is an invention or development that causes the food supply to increase. The more dense population is, the more intensive cultivation becomes. She argued that when population density is low enough to allow it, land tends to be used intermittently, with heavy reliance on fire to clear fields and fallowing to restore fertility (often called slash and burn farming). Numerous studies have shown such methods to be favourable in total workload and also efficiency (output versus input). In Boserup’s theory, it is only when rising population density curtails the use of fallowing (and therefore the use of fire) that fields are moved towards annual cultivation. Contending with insufficiently fallowed, less fertile plots, covered with grass or bushes rather than forest, mandates expanded efforts at fertilizing, field preparation, weed control, and irrigation. These changes often induce agricultural innovation but increase marginal labour cost to the farmer as well: the higher the rural population density, the more hours the farmer must work for the same amount of produce. Therefore workloads tend to rise while efficiency drops. This process of raising production at the cost of more work at lower efficiency is what Boserup describes as "agricultural intensification". The theory has been instrumental in understanding agricultural patterns in developing countries, although it is highly simplified and generalized. 
In Boserup’s theory, it is only when rising population density curtails the use of fallowing (and therefore the use of fire) that fields are moved towards annual cultivation - she suggests this happens in two ways:
First Way - change fallow times or stages - Forest Fallow, Bush Fallow, Short Fallow, Annual Cropping, Multicropping. Contending with insufficiently fallowed, less fertile plots, covered with grass or bushes rather than forest, mandates expanded efforts at fertilizing, field preparation, weed control, and irrigation.
Second Way - New Farming Methods. These changes often induce agricultural innovation but in LDC's these changes also increase marginal labour costs to the farmer as well: the higher the rural population density, the more hours the farmer must work for the same amount of produce. Therefore workloads tend to rise while efficiency drops. This process of raising production at the cost of more work at lower efficiency is what Boserup describes as "agricultural intensification". New Farming Methods can include:
- New Techniques - Hydroponics, weather control, improve irrigation (ground water, canals), fertilization, pesticides, herbicides, machines, Green Revolution (Hybrid seeds), GMO's, Green Houses, Desalination, stop Desertification, etc.
- New Organizations - Co-opertives, Agribusiness, Vertical Integration, Communes, Kibbutz etc.
- Land Reform - Gavelkind laws (absentee landlords), Plantations,
- Development of Marginal Lands - Greenhouses, fertilization, irrigation, Global Warming may help, etc.
- Cultivation of the Sea - Aquaculture
- Synthetic Foods - Chemicals to simulate, replicate food. EG. Cool Whip - no milk. Question of nutrition.
Ester Boserup argued that changes and improvements occur from within agricultural communities, and that improvements are governed not only by outside interference, but by those communities themselves.
Using extensive analyses of the costs and productivity of the main systems of traditional agriculture, Ester Boserup concludes that technical, economic and social changes are unlikely to take place unless the community concerned is exposed to the pressure of population growth. In sharp contrast to widely accepted ideas, she shows how population growth may be the main stimulus to agrarian change. In developing this theme, the author identifies successive stages of agriculture, characterized by differences in techniques of cultivation and in social structure and show how they can be explained by differences in population density. This book is of relevance not only to economists, but also to historians interested in the way present changes in agrarian communities parallel those of the past.
Using extensive analyses of the costs and productivity of the main systems of traditional agriculture, Ester Boserup concludes that technical, economic and social changes are unlikely to take place unless the community concerned is exposed to the pressure of population growth. In sharp contrast to widely accepted ideas, she shows how population growth may be the main stimulus to agrarian change. In developing this theme, the author identifies successive stages of agriculture, characterized by differences in techniques of cultivation and in social structure and show how they can be explained by differences in population density. This book is of relevance not only to economists, but also to historians interested in the way present changes in agrarian communities parallel those of the past.
Examples:
A household has to work more to keep the same level of income. The intensification (one stage to another due to population growth) brings about an improvement in tools (from the digging stick, to the hoe, to the plough) and in the long run also brings some investments in land improvement (e.g. irrigation schemes). With pre-industrial technology, land improvements had to be done manually by peasants. ]
On a global level the growing suffering and famine in some LEDC’s may reinforce Malthusian ideas. On a national scale some governments have been motivated by increasing populations to develop their resources to meet growing demands.
Boserup’s idea is based upon field studies in Southeast Asia and she developed her idea under a number of assumptions. “The Green Revolution in Asian countries using HYV (hybrid) seeds from Mexico & the Philippines are seen as evidence to support Boserup. Food production in India has been rising faster than population in the 80’s and 90’s”.
Arguments:
Arguments:
"The model has its own weaknesses. It is surely convincing as an account of long-term growth. It is less convincing as an explanation of short-term trends, and in this case the "short" term can last for decades."
"In her world, intensification is possible up to a point, but sooner or later it has to reach a limit."
"One may speculate that she was more interested in less developed countries than in advanced countries, or simply she did not want to add a stage which could not fit easily in a model based on the length of fallow. "
"Boserup seems to neglect the different nature of modern technology or, if you want, the new role of capital. Her world is a two-factor world -- labor and land. "
"Boserup assumes that population growth is exogenous, following a standard practice among economists in pre-Beckerian time. Today, however, most consider population growth to be endogenous, and largely affected by economic calculations. People could reduce population increase by delaying marriages, controlling births, migrating and the like. Slower population growth would, ceteris paribus, reduce the drive to agricultural intensification."
"Unfortunately, the places with the food shortages tend to have low-tech agriculture, and the high-tech parts of the world tend to have high living standards and plenty of food."
"some point, the population may get so huge that they can't be fed no matter how inventive they are. Indeed to feed more mouths people have to dig deeper into the environment, to divert more biological productivity for themselves, to demand more from the soil, to use more water, more fertiliser etc., etc., Can the environment really sustain this kind of pressure in the long run?"
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